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No single cause explains revolution, but recurring ingredients appear across centuries: fiscal crisis, elite fracture, humiliating defeat in war, and ...

Bread riots are among the oldest triggers of political upheaval. The French march on Versailles in 1789 followed a bad harvest and soaring grain price...

Succeeding at revolution takes more than crowds. Three variables recur in the historical record. First, the coercive apparatus must defect or divide: ...

Every revolution eventually faces the question of what comes next, and the answer is usually a constitution. The American founders wrote and rewrote t...

Reform and revolution compete for the same grievances. Reformers work through existing institutions: the British expanded the vote in stages between 1...

In a single year, communist regimes fell across Europe in a contagious cascade. The anatomy of the wave is instructive. Moscow under Gorbachev renounc...